Item number: A168

Year: AD 698

Material: Gold

Size: 18.5 x 18.5 / thick 0.3~1.0 mm

Weight: 4.25 g

Manufactured by: Damascus, Syria

Provenance: Spink 2023

This gold dinar was minted in the year AH 79 (AD 698) by Abd al-Malik, the fifth caliph of the Umayyad Empire. Abd al-Malik was the first Muslim ruler to inscribe verses from the Quran onto coins, and his designs had a profound impact on the Islamic world thereafter. The obverse of the coin features the well-known Shahada: “There is no god but Allah, and Muhammad is the messenger of Allah.” Surrounding this central inscription, the text is arranged counterclockwise, beginning with the latter part of the Shahada: “Muhammad is the messenger of God”, followed by a verse from Chapter 61 of the Quran, “As-Saff,” emphasizing the mission of Muhammad to make Islam prevail over all religions, even if disbelievers resist.

The central inscription on the reverse side of the coin is derived from Chapter 112 of the Quran, “Al-Ikhlas,” emphasizing the monotheistic belief of Muslims: “Say, ‘He is Allah, [Who is] One, Allah, the Eternal Refuge. He neither begets nor is born, nor is there to Him any equivalent.’” The surrounding inscription states: “In the name of Allah, this dinar was minted in the year AH 79.”

As the fifth caliph of the first Muslim hereditary dynasty in history, Abd al-Malik faced challenges amid the Second Fitna. The empire’s territorial control had diminished to Syria, Palestine, and Egypt, with the remaining lands held by opposing factions. Compounding the situation, the Umayyad forces suffered setbacks in their campaigns against the Byzantine Empire in the north, necessitating Abd al-Malik to engage in negotiations and pay tribute to the Byzantine Empire. Despite the rapid spread of Islam throughout the Eastern Mediterranean region in the 7th century, the monetary system under Muslim rule remained influenced by the well-established Roman gold coins and Persian silver coins. Muslims either utilized these foreign currencies or minted coins imitating their designs.

Around AD 692, Byzantine Emperor Justinian II issued an order to mint the first-ever solidus gold coin featuring a frontal half-figure of Christ. The reverse side depicted the emperor’s portrait alongside the inscription “Servant of Christ.” He mandated the use of these coins in Byzantine trade. This reform raised concerns for Abd al-Malik. On one hand, it could embolden the Christian communities still prevalent in Syria-Palestine under Byzantine rule. On the other hand, the theological implications were troubling for Muslims, who could not reconcile the Christian concept of the Trinity and resented the implication by Byzantine emperors of being divine spokespersons on Earth.

To counter the solidus gold coins issued by the Byzantine Empire, Abd al-Malik commanded the minting of gold coins bearing verses from the Quran in the year AH 77 (AD 696). Compared to the Byzantine solidus weighing 4.38 g, the Muslim gold dinar weighed slightly less at 4.25 g. Additionally, there was a higher circulation of gold dinars, and transactions were conducted based on the number of coins rather than their weight. In this manner, Abd al-Malik effectively applied Gresham’s Law, wherein bad money drives out good money. In AD 717, with the city of Constantinople facing a second siege by Muslims, Leo III, who took over the fate of the Byzantine Empire, began to decline. The Byzantine Empire even resorted to imitating the gold dinar for coinage, signaling the fluctuating power dynamics between the Islamic and Byzantine forces in the Eastern Mediterranean region.

物件編號: A168

年代: 公元 698 年

材料: 黃金

尺寸: 18.5 x 18.5 / 厚度 0.3~1.0 mm

重量: 4.25 g

製造地: 大馬士革，敘利亞

來源: 斯賓克拍賣行 2023

這枚金第納爾是回曆79年(公元698年)由伍麥亞帝國的第五任哈里發阿卜杜勒-麥立克所鑄造。阿卜杜勒-麥立克是首位將《古蘭經》經文鑄於硬幣的穆斯林統治者，他的設計對後世的伊斯蘭世界產生了深遠影響。金幣的正面中央是全球穆斯林最為熟悉的清真言內容：「萬物非主，唯有真主，沒有能與其並駕之物」。周圍的銘文按逆時針排序，開頭是清真言後半部禱詞：「穆罕默德是真主的使者」，後接《古蘭經》第61章《列陣》經文：「他(穆罕默德)曾以正道和真教的使命委託他的使者，以便他使真教勝過一切宗教，即使以物配主的人不願意」。

金幣的背面中央是出自《古蘭經》第112章《忠誠》的經文，強調穆斯林「認主獨一」：「你說：他是真主，是獨一的主；真主是萬物所仰賴的；他沒有生產，也沒有被生產；沒有任何物可以做他的匹敵」。周圍的銘文意思是：「奉阿拉之名，此第納爾於回曆79年鑄造」。

作為歷史上第一個穆斯林世襲王朝的第五任哈里發，阿卜杜勒-麥立克面臨的難關是第二次伊斯蘭教內戰的衝擊下。帝國統治疆域已縮水至敘利亞、巴勒斯坦和埃及，其餘領土皆被敵對家族所掌握。更糟糕的是，征討北方的基督教強權拜占庭帝國失利，迫使阿卜杜勒-麥立克被迫和談，需要向拜占庭帝國定期納貢。雖然伊斯蘭教在公元7世紀迅速傳遍東地中海地區，但穆斯林統治下的貨幣體系仍然深受成熟的羅馬金幣和波斯銀幣的影響。穆斯林要麼使用這些外國貨幣，要麼仿造其設計鑄造貨幣。

大約公元692年，拜占庭皇帝查士丁尼二世下令鑄造了歷史上第一枚正面印有基督半身像的索利都斯金幣，其背面則是皇帝本人的肖像和富有宗教意味的「基督的奴僕」字樣，並要求對拜占庭的貿易要使用這種硬幣。查士丁尼二世這項變革令阿卜杜勒-麥立克感到警惕。一方面，在世俗上，拜占庭這一舉動會鼓舞其統治下，在敘利亞-巴勒斯坦地區仍擁有龐大人口的基督教社群。另一方面，在神學上，穆斯林無法接受基督教圍繞「三位一體」的觀念，並且無法接受拜占庭皇帝藉此暗示自己是上帝在人間的發言人。

為了對抗拜占庭帝國的金索利都斯，阿卜杜勒-麥立克在回曆77年(公元696年)命令鑄造帶有《古蘭經》的金幣。相比拜占庭帝國的金索利都斯重量為4.38克，穆斯林的金第納爾重量較輕，為4.25克。此外，金第納爾的發行量更多，且雙方是按照硬幣數量而非重量進行交易。阿卜杜勒-麥立克在無形中成功地演繹了經濟學中的「格雷欣法則」，即劣幣逐良幣的定律。公元717年，隨著首都君士坦丁堡面臨穆斯林的第二次圍攻，接手拜占庭帝國國運的利奧三世開始走下坡路，甚至反過來仿造第納爾以鑄造貨幣，這標誌著伊斯蘭和拜占庭勢力在東地中海地區的消長。